SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Introduction
The previous chapter details and discusses the analysis of the dataset and provides examples of the data drawn from transcripts of screen interactions, oral reports and interviews with the participant learners. It also explores prior published studies and theories in relation to the findings of the empirical research. This chapter provides a summary of the conclusions drawn around each of the factors identified within each of the three themes: capacity, sense of control and reminiscence. The final section offers a brief overall discursive summary of the conclusions.
6.2. The Factors Identified
When designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners, designers need to consider a number of important factors (see Figure 6.1).
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Figure 6.1 Factors which need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners..
6.2.1. Capacity
Capacity was one of the three overarching themes identified from analysis of the dataset. Within this theme a number of important factors were identified:
EXPERIENCE
The study found that the performance of elderly learners can be improved by way of practice of a given activity. This was principally demonstrated when an elderly learner’s coordinative performance and speed improved through repetition. However, experience can only go so far if the capacity of the learner is restrictive. The study identified age-related factors that should be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners. In this regard, physical, sensory and cognitive age-related changes were identified as important factors.
PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND COGNITIVE FACTORS
Visual Acuity and visual accommodation: This research concludes that colour has the power to impact on the emotional and psychological states of elderly learners. The study found that colour had the capacity to cause a learner to feel “confused“ and to make his “mind [go] blank”. In addition, the communications throughout the cases indicate the importance of legibility.The learners communicated a preference for font which is “clear” and “big” enough to facilitate legibility because the elderly learners in this study did not avail of the zoom facility nor did they refer to it in any way. This may be indicative of a general tendency among elderly computer users not to avail of those tools.
Auditory Capacity: The data drawn by this study indicates that e-learning environments need to cater for age-related changes in hearing capacity. Further, Kiss & Ennis (2001) referred to in Gaberini et al. (2006) found that elderly learners tend not to be able to comprehend computer generated speech which does not adhere to the natural rhythm of normal speech (see Gamberini et al, 2006). Pace of speech is also important, the faster the pace of speech the more difficult it is for elderly learners to understand what is being said (Martin & Jerger, 2005). In addition, the findings from the present study indicate the elderly learner’s preference for “clear” audios. The learners complained about background noise and “fuzzy” recordings which caused distractions.However, once all background noise other than the speaker of focus had been edited out, learners commented on the clarity of the audios.
Psychomotor and Hand Agility: An elderly learner might have difficulties with hand-eye coordination and such difficulties can impact on the learner’s emotions. This study found that learners were inclined to be “embarrassed” and “self-conscious” when they had difficulties with coordination. Although this might highlight the ‘observer effect’, it is also indicative of the emotional responses that these difficulties stir up in an older person. Responses in this study indicate that the elderly learners prefer and find it easier to use the “mouse” as opposed to typing or the mouse pad. In addition, the findings in the present study indicate a preference for “buttons” that take the learner directly to the desired destination, they may “find [them] easier to use” than drop down menus. What is more, elderly e-learners tend to “forget to scroll down” and, as a consequence, “probably miss out a lot because of that”. This study concludes that psychomotor and hand agility capacities are important factors to consider when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners.
Executive Function: The probability of executive functioning decline (see Salthouse et al., 2003; Bakos, et al 2008) is also an important factor that needs to be considered when designing e-learning environments for elderly learners. Findings from this study indicate that providing activities that require the learner to select from a number of learning items, while limiting the choice to just a few appears to work well with elderly learners. My interpretation from real time observations and from analysing the recorded data is that the incorporation of “simple” designs is key and so too is providing “spacious” layouts. Instructional design and interactivity design needs to be very “clear” and precise. This study found the inclusion of “video” guides and “prescribed steps” assisted learners. Furthermore, via observations it was found that one particular learner tended to click on irrelevant items of the screen. Designers could examine whether it is possible to cater for this type of behaviour.
Attention: Appraisals by the learners point to the need for designs that minimise cognitive load by reducing unnecessary elements and avoid overcrowding. This study found that when related elements are located in different places this can cause attention to split. Furthermore, issues connected to the lack of synchronisation of relevant elements also came to the fore. When the elements in question had been “synchronised”, the learner who retested in the final test showed signs of improved engagement with the activity.
Processing Speed: Emotional interference or psychological noise may have been the reason why learners showed slow possessing speeds. This might be triggered by the layout or interactivity elements of the design. To endeavour to accommodate the slowing cognitive processing speeds of elderly learners, designers could provide “clear” instructions and specify “clear” procedures. Further, perhaps,designers could avoid overtaxing the faculties related to fluid intelligence and capitalize on crystallised intelligence. This might be done by creating activities that allow an elderly learner to draw on past experiences or interests. Furthermore, the results of this study indicate that “self-paced” activities that do not make the learner feel “pressurised” and allow elderly learners to “complete them in [their] own time” are effective in catering for slowing processing speeds. Nevertheless, through repetition and practice, this study found that the elderly learners were able to speed up their processing of incoming stimuli.
Memory: Memory is an important factor that designers of e-learning environments need to take into account, particularly in the case of older learners. The elderly adults in this study frequently referred to difficulties in remembering. Therefore, memory aids such as visuals could be included in the instructional design because this study found that “the images really help”. Reducing the number of items to be absorbed in a lesson may also help. This study found that activities which provide the learner with plenty of “practice” through reinforcement activities are appreciated by older adults. This indicates that designs should allow elderly learners to successfully complete tasks in a “self paced” fashion and maximise learning through the provision of reinforcement activities.
6.2.2. Sense of Control
Sense of control was another of the three overarching themes identified from analysis of the dataset. Summaries of the conclusions drawn in relation to each of the factors identified under this theme follow:
Goal Clarity: The elderly learners in this study showed that they could sometimes experience feelings of insecurity due to a lack of understanding and this meant that sometimes they did not “know what to do next”. This may have been due to unclear learning objectives. When designing activities to engage the elderly learner, it is necessary to place the activity in the clear context of the objectives to be attained and provide “clear” instructions on how to go about reaching those objectives. A way of doing this is by providing a video or guide on how to proceed through the activity and reach objectives. However, this guide in itself can present problems, as demonstrated in the present study. A problem manifested itself when an elderly learner failed to differentiate between the video and the actual activity, the learner became “confused” and his “mind went blank”. Therefore, videos need to have clear exit points or perhaps, automatic exits. Another way to improve clarity is to provide clear written instructions. In addition, numbering the set of steps the learner must take to accomplish objectives was found to be effective in the present study.
Self-Confidence: Learners need to feel confident or sure that they can effectively work through the activity. The activities employed in the present study varied in level of difficulty from one learning activity to another. This strategy endeavours to allow for some easy wins with the aim of building learner confidence, while at the same time providing enough difficulty to allow the learner a sense of challenge and to stimulate the cognitive processes and effort. Although this may have supported the learners’ self-confidence to some extent, the learners still showed signs of being “unsure” and “self-conscious” at times. They also varied in the level of self-confidence they possessed. One learner explained that he had “felt a bit nervous at first, but then [he] started to get into it”. However, being too sure of the outcome may actually impact negatively on engagement levels as indicated by Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) theory on the state of ‘flow’. This implies that when designing to fully engage the learner, designers need to be aware of the self-confidence factor, and on how level of difficulty can impact on learners’ self- confidence levels.
Options: In relation to instructional design, e-learning environments need to provide options to the learner. The provision of options allows the learner to best guess and this may make things easier for the elderly adult where learning of the subject matter is at the early stages and knowledge is not yet reinforced. The learners in the present study communicated that the activities involving selecting from options are “fun and a good way to learn Italian words”. Activities employing options can also provide a mechanism for reinforcing target learning matter. In addition, they may also provide the elderly learner with a sense of control when the learner’s choice is restricted to a small number or options. Providing just a small number of options may help prevent cognitive overload and unnecessary stress for the elderly learner. In terms of navigational design, this study found that a restricted number of navigational options kept the elderly learners on the right paths. Furthermore, the study also found that navigational options presented in “button” form which take the learner directly to the intended location are preferred to “drop down menus” that provide even more options to choose from. Thus, simple and direct navigational designs with a limited number of navigational options may provide the elderly e-learner with an augmented sense of control. In sum, the provision of options both in the instructional design and the navigational design of e-learning environments need to be considered when aiming to engage elderly learners.
Expectations: Elderly learners can feel more in control when they are able to expect what will happen as a consequence of some action. A learner in the present study indicated that “it can be a bit confusing” when something other than what was expected happens when a button is clicked or a function is activated. In relation to the concept of expectation, when a function does not meet its expected effect in an efficient way, learners may become frustrated and may “give up”. This was indicated during an interview session when a learner communicated his frustration at “predictive text” in relation to mobile phones. Therefore, designers of e-learning environments need to consider the factor of expectation when designing for elderly learners.
Novelty: Although repeating a number of similar exercises may seem to provide more of a sense of control, the elderly learners, in this study, communicated that “too many” of the same type of exercises within a genre of activity is tedious. Therefore, it is important to create variety and novelty in order to keep the learners’ stimulation high and sustain engagement levels (see Keller, 1983). Novelty is an important element of learning, but it may be necessary to provide mechanisms to enable the elderly learner to understand the new presentation or novel way of doing something. This could be catered for through explicit guides. Although the video guide in this study may have reduced the surprise element to some extent, it proved to be an effective way of reassuring the elderly learners - apart from one learner who became confused. What is more, the study found that the elderly learners liked learning familiar items in novel ways. This was particularly highlighted by the learners in relation to the alphabet activity. A learner indicated that “the Alphabet exercise was good and a clever way of learning the alphabet.”
Errors: Errors may very easily create a sense of frustration and invoke other negative emotions for learners. When the elderly learners in this study made a mistake, sometimes they felt “embarrassed”. Although this is also indicative of the ‘observer effect’, it still implies the emotional impact making a mistake can have for an elderly learner. Therefore, reducing the probability of errors should be a key objective for interface designers. This study found that an effective technique for preventing errors is to limit the learners’ actions and provide numbered “prescribed steps”. Closely connected to the concept of errors is feedback. The learners in this study showed their approval of immediate feedback and of having the control to “reset ... and try again”. As a result, of the immediate feedback and reset mechanisms, the learners were “not pressurised” and easy recovery avoided learner frustration.
Achievement: If the subject matter, visual content and aural content have relevance to the learner, this will enable him or her to sustain motivation to complete the task at hand and, as a result, the learner will experience a sense of achievement and satisfaction (see Keller, 1987). The present study found that elderly people can feel pride and joy in successfully achieving objectives. When one learner clicked on an image and a correct symbol appeared she cheered. This example suggests that designers should consider the factor of achievement and provide the elderly learners with mechanisms to successfully complete activities so as to enable them to feel a sense of achievement.
6.2.3. Reminiscence
The third theme identified from the dataset is reminiscence and under this theme five factors were identified as follows:
- A sense of the past
- A sense of identity
- Memory
- A sense of the present
- A sense of the future
Learning entails both internal development and interactions with the external environment. Learning is improved when the subject matter has specific relevance for a learner (Darling-Hammond, 2011). Providing the elderly with engaging learning activities might contribute to feelings of satisfaction and integrity as put forward by Erikson’s psychosocial theory (see 1982; 1987) .This theory proposes that the elderly individual looks back on his or her life to resolve whether is was a success. In light of Erikson’s psychosocial theory, designers of e-learning environments could harness the elderly learner’s natural tendency to reminisce and investigate how an elderly person’s sense of the past, memory, sense of identity, sense of the present and sense of the future might be considered when designing e-learning environments in the context of invoking episodes of reminiscence. Moreover, the multisensory approach employed in the design of activities tested in this study, and further informed by a participatory iterative process, showed embryonic signs of its potential to be effective in inducing the activity of reminiscence. This potential is implicit in the assertion by an elderly learner that the images of food and Italian phrases reminded her of “a time [she] was in Italy”.
6.3. Conclusive Summary
Accomplishment of tasks relies not only on the capacity of the [learner or] user, but also on the activity and how elements of the website are organized. These elements include the Web page layout, the usability of the interface, and the design of interaction. Therefore, the ease with which a learner completes an activity is reliant not only on the capacity of the learner’s cognitive properties, but also on the level of difficulty encountered by the elements of the activity and Web page designs. The challenge for Web designers is to adapt these design elements to the characteristics of users (Schmutz et al, 2009). Instructional designers need to provide meaningful instruction while minimizing any superfluous cognitive load (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). A Web-based learning activity ought to provide the learner with a sense of control. However, the extent of control needed may differ by individuals, and too much control can actually cause stress. In this regard, the negative stress related effects are greater for elderly individuals (Rodin & Timko, 1991). Traditional learning provision requires effective cognitive processes; the learner-controlled multimedia environment can challenge an elderly learner’s cognitive skills even further. The growth of cognitive skills within such environments hinges on the learners selection of navigational paths. When the most efficient and effective sequence of instruction is followed, this may enhance learning outcome and improve self-efficacy. Within these multimedia environments, complete and unrestricted control along with undefined learning objectives can reduce the effectiveness of learning (Kozma, 1991). To cater for the specific needs of elderly learners within e-learning environments, designers need to strike a balance by providing enough control through a direct and obvious navigational system and prescribe steps with enough freedom of choice to allow for a sense of autonomy, challenge and achievement. In addition, learning activities to engage the elderly e-learners also need to be emotional and accordingly, evoke enjoyment, a sense of identity and reminiscence and thereby, cater for the psychosocial needs of the elderly learner (see McMahon & Rhudick, 1964; Havighurst & Glasser, 1972; Erikson, 1959;1982; Hassenzahl, Roto, 2007; Garrett, 2009). In sum, when designing e-learning environments to engage the elderly learner, designers could examine the learner within her or his psychological, biological and social contexts. In the present study, a participatory iterative design process and thematic analysis enabled me to identify the most important factors that need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage the elderly learner. These factors are encompassed within the three overarching themes of capacity, sense of control and reminiscence.
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