Chapter Five

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THEMATIC ANALYSIS REPORT

FINDINGS & DISCUSSION

5.1 Overall Introduction

In line with thematic analysis, this chapter produces a report of the analysis.   Herein, the findings are presented and discussed in relation to identifying the most important factors that need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners.  Examples of data extracts are provided and an exploration of relevant literature provides an insight into theories and previous studies that relate in some way to this present work (see Braun & Clarke, 2006; Boyatis, 1998).  Thus, analysis of both primary and secondary sources contribute to this report. The study was primarily inductive in approach and in effect data driven. As a result, the themes were derived from the data gathered empirically.  Once an initial theme was identified, it was then re-examined in light of the findings from all iterations. In this way, a deductive logic was also called upon. Richards (1993) argues that it is improbable that inductive and deductive research processes are totally detached from one another. He claims that it is impossible to enter the research process with no prior knowledge of theory and he argues that both are constantly present, and frequently both are present at the same time (Richards, 1993).  The published studies which relate to the themes and each of the factors identified through the inductive strategy were only explored subsequent to the identification of the themes and factors, and not any earlier in the research process (see Braun & Clarke, 2006).  Before embarking on the process of analysis, I explored prior studies that had employed thematic inductive approaches (see Jain & Ogden, 1999, Elliott & Gillie 1998; Cassell et al., 2005 ) and I also read explanatory literature on thematic analysis and qualitative methods (see Aronson, 1994; van Manen, 1990;  Boyatis, 1998;  Bryman, 2001; Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006).   

An iterative process of design provided a practical configuration from which empirical data were drawn. Thematic analysis at a latent level enabled identification of key themes. Analysis at a latent level explores beyond the semantic content of the data and studies the causal relationships, backgrounds, concepts and viewpoints which are posited as influencing or informing the semantic content of the data (see Braun & Clarke, 2006). Three overarching contextual themes were identified from the dataset. These themes are as follows: capacity, sense of control and reminiscence. Within the context of each of the themes, sub-themes were identified. The identified sub-themes were perceived by me, as researcher, to embody the factors that need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners. See Figure 5.1 for a graphical depiction of the analytic framework employed.

Figure 5.1 Graphical Overview of This Study’s Research Framework. 

5.2 Capacity: an overarching theme

Capacity of the elderly learner was an overarching theme I identified within the dataset, and within the context of this theme, I identified physical, sensory and cognitive factors. In effect, this research builds, to some extent, into the work and conclusions reported by various authors in Birren & Schaie, (2006), and also on the research carried out by Gamberini et al. (2006). Gamberini et al (2006) highlight the most common physical and cognitive changes that occur with age and they suggest the importance of taking into account the specific abilities of the elderly when designing Web interfaces.  Kattenstroth et al.  (2010) and Birren & Schaie, (2006) report that aging is connected with a progressive decline of cognitive and physiological capacities. Physical, sensory and cognitive capacities do not function in isolation from one another.  For example, sensory information such as visual signals and images caught by the eyes require cognitive processing in order to provide an understanding of their context and meaning, and psychomotor activities are managed by the executive functions (Birren & Schaie, 2006).  However, for the purposes of organisation, these factors are discussed in separate sections (see Figure 5.2).  The empirical data, which I gathered throughout this present study and my subsequent exploration of published research and prior studies indicates the importance of these factors.

Figure 5.2 Concept Map: Capacity

5.2.1 Learner Performance & Experience

Before I discuss the important factors identified within the context of capacity, I feel it is important to refer to how experience impacts on performance.  The relationship between performance and experience was found to be remarkably noticeable in studies carried out by Chadwick-Dias, McNulty & Tullis (2003).  Older computer users completed fewer tasks and required more time to complete a task at hand in comparison to the younger users. Nevertheless, the link between experience and performance was observed across both age cohorts, which signified that factors other than experience accounted for the weaker performance of the older adults.  These findings imply that there are age related factors that impact on learners’ performances.  The present study also found there was a correlation between experience and performance.  In the present study, coordinative performance of elderly participants was found to improve with experience.  As a result of this improvement, the accuracy and the pace at which a task was completed improved.  However, in the present study, although task completion was identified as an important factor, the speed of completion was not considered to be a key indicator of engagement in elderly learners.  The following observation highlights the importance of experience.  Experience, in this case, is understood in terms of repetitive practice in relation to the ‘drag and drop’ activity.  For example, a learner was observed while interacting with this activity in the second iteration.   Although he had no prior experience coming to the activity, he gained experience within a very short time frame through repetition:

The learner accessed the activity.  He read the instructions [...]. Although his hands were unsteady, he knew what he had to do and what would happen if he got it wrong or right.  He had some difficulty with coordination; however, he put in a lot of effort to drag the word under the corresponding picture. Although he repeatedly missed the slot, he repeatedly said, “I’d say it’d be easy enough when you get to know it.” His coordinative accuracy and use of the mouse improved as the learner progressed through subsequent activities within this genre of activity.  And as a result, the pace at which the learner completed these tasks quickened. (Learner 2)

The above observed evidence indicates that experience can play an important role in improving the performance of elderly learners. However, to maximise the engagement levels of elderly learners, designers also need to look at the specific capacities of the elderly learner and investigate how to design to accommodate those capacities, while simultaneously considering how experience affects performance. Through my exploration of relevant literature and the examination of the data I gathered through recordings of observations, oral reports and interviews, I endeavoured to identify what age related factors are important when designing e-learning environments for elderly learners.  Thematic analysis enabled me to identify capacity as an overarching theme.  Within the context of capacity, I identified three major themes.  These three major themes are physical, sensory and cognitive capacity.  Within the context of these three themes, I identified other narrower themes as important factors.

5.2.2. PHYSICAL & SENSORY CAPACITY

Figure 5.3 Concept Map Physical & Sensory Capacity

As we age, physical changes take place in our bodies.  These can range from joint stiffness resulting in slow and restricted motor movements and weakened bodily controls which are brought on by conditions such as arthritis, rheumatism and tremors etcetera.  In addition, age related changes to the anatomy of eye and to the anatomy of the ear may occur.  Such occurrences can impact negatively on an elderly person’s sight and result in varying scales of hearing loss.  These anatomical changes do not happen in isolation from our brains.  Compton, Shroyer & Niemeyer (2004) state that perceptual development is at the core of our understanding and interpretations of the external environment in which we interact.  Sensory experiences are induced through auditory and visual stimuli and, as a result, our brains grow and develop (Compton, Shroyer & Niemeyer 2004). 

5.2.2.1. Visual Acuity

Our capacity to deal with our environment effectively starts with our ability to process sensory stimuli.  As a person ages, the activity of processing sensory stimuli strains declining cognitive resources (Scrieber, 2003).  Due to changes in the anatomy of the eye, as a person ages it typically becomes more difficult for vision to adapt to changes in degrees of light.  It also becomes more difficult to perceive motion and colour accurately, and sensitivity to contrast decreases. Mechanisms to deal with glare are effected by age, as too is peripheral vision (Screiber, 2003).   Screiber (2003) found that between the ages of 30 and 80 people make increasingly more errors when discriminating between surface colours that differ in trace quantities of yellow of blue pigment.   In the present study, the effect colour has on cognition and emotion was demonstrated by a learner in relation to the demonstration video which guided the learners on how to proceed through activities and achieve goals. A learner found the dark colour at the end of the video threw him into confusion. The following observation illustrates this effect:

The learner read the introduction and there were no apparent problems. He then independently clicked on the ‘Guide’ button to view the demonstration video.  When this video ended he paused and seemed confused and commented “it’s very dark” which referred to the colour which replaced the video when it had ended. He had difficulty deciding what to do next even though the instructions in the video had just informed of what he had to do (Learner 2)

In relation to the above reaction, perhaps the fact that the ‘dark colour’ took up a large percentage of the screen was significant.  In the subsequent interview, the same learner reiterated his confusion in regard to the “dark colour”.  This reiteration may be a sign of the strength of the emotion he felt:  

“I think the video is a good idea, but the dark colours at the end confused me and I went blank.” ...(Learner 2)

Furthermore, in regard to the demonstration video, one learner could not distinguish between the video demonstration on how to proceed through the activity and the actual activity.  This may have been due to the way the visual stimuli were being processed by the learner. The following observation illustrates this:

When the video opened, the learner was unable to distinguish between the video and the actual screen.  Because the video looked exactly like the actual activity, he was confused.  He began to interact with the video as though it was the actual activity (Learner 3)

What is more, sometimes learners did not notice relevant elements and links.  This may have been connected to the learner’s visual acuity:

“I didn’t notice the numbers at first. ...” (Learner 3)

In response to a question put to the learners in relation to things that annoy them about technology today, one learner replied:

“ I don’t really like when the screen is overcrowded or when the colours are very black.” ...”... when the screen is black”(Learner 1)

And another learner replied to the same question:

“Bad colour schemes and too many items on the screen.” (Learner 4)

The following quote communicates the learner’s dislike of items that are too “flashy” or colours that are too bright and “glary”.

“... really flashy things and when I can’t read the writing or the colour is too bright and glary.” (Learner 2)

The above observations and verbal responses appear to be indicative of the capacity colour has to impact on the emotional and psychological states of elderly learners.  Therefore, it may also be deduced that colour has the capacity to impact on the engagement levels of elderly learners. Designers need to ensure colour schemes are both easy on the eyes and facilitate legibility.

5.2.2.2. Visual Accommodation

An experiment carried out by Omori et al. (2008) using mobile phones found a decline in legibility owing to a reduction in the font size which was reflected by a greater number of errors by elderly participants.  The younger participants adapted to a decrease in font size by decreasing their distance from the mobile phone, which may have the effect of increasing the size of the font to the retina and thereby, sustain legibility.  Conversely, the elderly participants increased their distance which could be due to ‘Presbyopia’ which is a condition which makes reading at close range more difficult (see Masayoshi et al., 2009; Schieber, 2003; Omori et al., 2002).  Throughout this study, the elderly learners commended the learning activities continually for the clarity of the font and, in effect, they communicated the importance of font size and font legibility.  On access to the first activity a learner reported:

“well so far, it’s very clear and the words are nice and big”  (Learner 1)

Furthermore, while interacting within the alphabet activity a learner reported:

 “I think the way this [presentation of alphabet] is set out [looks] well “[…] concise and bigger letters”  “the way it’s set out is like a keyboard and everyone knows the keyboard”  “although it’s not like the qwerty keyboard … it’s better to the eye.” (Learner 2)

A learner indicated how font size has the capacity to create a positive attitude.  He appraised:

“I thought the writing was nice and big.” (Learner 2)

When a learner was asked for suggestions on improving designs in general, the learner replied:

“[...] and I suppose clear big writing...“  (Learner 1)

When a learner was asked what things annoyed him about technology today he included:

“...  when I can’t read the writing.” (Learner 2)

Overall, the communications above indicate the importance of legibility when designing learning activities within Web environments.  Designers should ensure font is clear and big enough to facilitate legibility because the elderly learners in this study did not avail of the zoom facility nor did they refer to it in any way.  This may be indicative of a general tendency among elderly learners not to avail of such tools.

5.2.2.3. Auditory Capacity

A study was carried out by Moscicki et al (1985) to evaluate hearing loss in the elderly. The study, which involved the participation of approximately 1,300 men and women aged between 57 and 89 years, found that the majority of participants displayed a sensorineural hearing loss.  Speech recognition difficulties experienced by the elderly are related to both aging effects and the presence of hearing loss (Gelfand et al., 1988).     Kiss & Ennis (2001) referred to in Gamberini et al (2006), found that dialogue generated digitally, which fails to correspond with the tempo of normal speech, can be difficult for the elderly person to understand (see Gamberini et al., 2006).   Older adults frequently encounter more difficulty comprehending speech than encountered by young adults.  This is particularly the case within noisy settings.  A decline in peripheral hearing sensitivity can account for many difficulties in listening. However, age-related deficits in general cognitive capacities and central auditory processing also appear to add to listening problems. Elderly people often inform of problems with hearing when there is background noise.  An elderly person may know that someone is speaking, but the elderly person might not be able to distinguish what the person is saying especially when there is more than one person talking.    In addition, the faster the speech the more difficult it is for the elderly person to understand.  This increased difficulty also applies as the quantity of auditory information becomes too much (Martin & Jerger, 2005). The activities employed in this study did not use computer generated speech, instead I incorporated the recordings of genuine Italian speakers.  Therefore, the above theory could not be tested. Schieber (2003) recommended nine ways in which sound might be designed to cater for hearing weaknesses.   One of these ways is in relation background noise.  While interacting with one of the learning activities designed for this present study, the first learner complained that the audios were not very clear and that there was a lot of background noise:

“... in the first activity there was a lot of background noise, which was a little distracting.” (Learner 1)

When asked for suggestions to improve the design of activities, among other things, the following learner offered:

“I found some of the recordings weren’t that clear.  I mean the recordings in the first activity were a bit fuzzy.” (Learner 1)

As a result of this information, the audios were re-recorded.  During the Presentation activity, in the second iteration, the learner appraised:

“It’s actually very clear, the voice is very clear “.   He also went on to say “you would learn from it because I think the person speaking is very clear”.  “I would actually think that doing those activities is good and quite simple and you would learn” (Learner 2)

And the same learner commented in regard to Activity four:

“I’ve to listen now and it’s very clear.” (Learner 2)

This data indicates the e-learning environments need to cater for the changes in hearing capacity that occurs with age.  Designs need to incorporate speech that is not computer generated.  Where speech is incorporated, it should include one person’s voice at a time and they also need to ensure that the pace of speaking is appropriate for an elderly learner. Designers also need to avoid incorporating recordings where people other than the speaker of focus are talking in the background. In addition, all other background noises should be edited out. Recordings also need to be very clear to avoid distractions or misunderstandings in what has been said.

5.2.2.4. Hand Agility

One of the manifestations of aging comes in declining overall coordination and manual agility (Reid Lyon & Knasegor, 1995). Motor movements also depend on physical agility. Consequently, manual dexterity can be affected by age-related problems which include arthritis, rheumatism and tremors etcetera (Scialfa et al., 2004).  Smith et al (1999) report there is an age related decline in completion of tasks that require more complicated motor skills and sequential speed, as when double clicking on the mouse. The following observation is an example of how a learner, despite hand tremors, succeeded through self-determination in completing an activity:

Although his hands were unsteady, he knew what he had to do and what would happen if he got it wrong or right.  He had some difficulty with coordination; however, he put in a lot of effort to drag the word under the corresponding picture (Learner 2)

Another learner discloses how her hands are stiff and due to this she would prefer activities that do not require a lot of typing:

“well, my hands are a bit stiff, so designs with hardly any typing would be better.”     (Learner 1)

An admission by the same learner indicates the difficulty an elderly learner might have with hand-eye coordination and how such difficulty can impact on the learner’s emotions:

“I was a bit embarrassed when with the dragging, it kept flying away.  I’d say it would be easy once you get the hang of it.” (Learner 2)

However, the last sentence in the above communication also indicates confidence that with practise it would become easy. It is interesting in this respect that the learner’s emphasis on practice was in relation to the physical interactivity as opposed to reinforcement of the target language.  This may have been due to the novelty factor of learning a language within a Web environment and also because the learner understood that learning a language demands time.  Furthermore, the learner also communicated the level of difficulty he encountered.  However, he indicated his engagement by the amount of effort he exerted to perfect the task at hand.

“I had a bit of difficulty dragging it into the box at first, but once I got the used to it – it became very easy.” (Learner 2)

He further lamented that he found the keypad difficult to use:

“I found sometimes working with the keypad a little difficult. But the mouse was easier to use.” (Learner 2)

In response to a question on which activity required the most effort, the learner explained that he needed to exert more effort for the ‘drag and drop’ activity:

 “.... [for] the dragging activity. You have to drag things and that demands physical effort.  For example, I needed to get the word in the right box and so I had to try and drag the word into the box, but sometimes it flew away.  But I like to try to work things out myself and sometimes that means I have to concentrate more.”(Learner 2)

The above explanation also demonstrates that despite the difficulties the learner encountered, the learner was still highly engaged, as illustrated by the effort he exerted and his enjoyment of the challenge.

5.2.2.5. Psychomotor Movements

Psychomotor activities are managed by the executive functions. Executive functions will be explained in more detail in a following section.  However, psychomotor are being discussed within this section due to the connection to hand agility. Studies show that as a person ages, his or her performance in paired associate learning declines (Gillbert 1941; Korchin & Basowitz; 1957; Canestrari, 1963).   Older learners are considerably at a disadvantage when performing psychomotor activities under paced settings. In a study by Brown (1957), it was found that under paced conditions, the elderly participants were at a substantial disadvantage in comparison to the young learners.   Research by Belbin (1953) and Welford (1959) report that mostly young people were employed in jobs which required speed and inflexibly paced timings.    While Welford (1958; 1977) states when timings are rigid in relation to an activity, the older adult is at a disadvantage.  This disadvantage is highlighted by the older person’s incompletion of the given task within the time allocated or completion in a hurried manner that produces errors.  The following response communicates the importance of self-paced activities for elderly learners:

“I liked the way I could take my time doing the activities.  I didn’t feel pressurised.”  (Learner 2)

Scialfa et al., (2004) found that spatial acuity and perception of length and orientation of objects can be distorted.  The following observation may also be indicative of the learner’s distorted spatial acuity and perception of length:

The learner  put in a lot of effort to drag the word under the corresponding picture. Initially the image kept flying away.  Nevertheless, he was determined to place the image into the designated slot.  He made several attempts before he managed to drag the image into the relevant slot“      (Learner 2)

Elderly computer users also have problems with navigation i.e. tabs and horizontal scrolls (Chadwick-Dias et al., 2003).  The activities employed in the present study were designed in a way that does not require the learner to use the scroll for any purpose and all links are mainly in button form.  These buttons take the learner directly to the desired destination. In relation to scrolling, an elderly blamed himself for failing to scroll:

  “ ....  I always forget to scroll down.  I’m sure that’s my fault though – I probably miss out on a lot because of that.” (Learner 4)

And, during her navigation from one activity to another, a learner expressed her preference for buttons that are direct links as opposed to drop down menus:

“It’s  very easy to go around the site ....  I like the idea of buttons, I think people find that easier to use.  I know you need drop-down menus for some things, but I think when there are more buttons, people use them easier.” (Learner 1)

What this data indicates is that designers need to consider psychomotor skills when designing e-learning environments for the elderly learner. Designers could investigate ways of incorporating a more direct navigational system and also endeavour to avoid the need to scroll where possible. 

5.2.3. COGNITIVE CAPACITY

Cognitive capacity see Figure 5.4

Figure 5.4 Concept Map Cognitive Capacity

Cognition is a term used to describe higher order processing which enables us to perceive. It encompasses attention, memory, planning, expectation, learning, decision making and best guessing behaviours.  

5.2.3.1. Executive Functions

Within cognition the executive functions play an important supervisory role in managing a person’s cognitive performance (Ruff & Rothbart, 1996; Baddeley & Della Sala, 1996; Hartley, 2006;  Birren & Schaie, 2006; Bakos et al., 2008).  Executive functions are employed to attain objectives. They encompass the ability to activate and hold back actions, to oversee and modify behaviour as needed, and they are called on when one needs to adapt to new situations or to carry out novel procedures or activities.  Executive functions allow people to prepare for expected future events or occurrences.  They enable people to estimate effects, results and consequences, to best guess, conceptualise and to theorize.  Therefore, a person with insufficient executive function might achieve the objectives of a simple task, such as clicking a specific coloured button when an image comes into view on a Web page, and on the other hand, she or he might have trouble where the activity is more complicated and where there is a division of attention between two different elements.  For example, a person may be required to give varying responses to various stimuli or to organised concepts in a new way (see Bakos et al., 2008).  Activities that require a person to complete a new task without instructions may challenge someone with an executive function deficit.  Many executive functions do not fully develop until adolescence. Some executive functions also appear to decline in old age (see Salthouse et al., 2003; Bakos et al., 2008).   In the present study, most of the activities were considered novel by the learners.  When the learners did not avail of the guide video or notice the prescribed steps, they sometimes became confused and did not know how to proceed.  The following assertion exemplifies this:

“Sometimes  I didn’t know what do next.” (Learner 1)

Further, although the guide video was provided to show the learners how to proceed through the activities and thereby, cater for any possible executive functioning decline, it  was also considered in itself to be an novel feature, therefore, this too presented difficulties, especially in relation to one learner. The learner in question did not understand what was happening when the guide video commenced.  In this regard he communicated:

“I got confused between the video and the real screen” ( Learner 2)

Since some executive functions decline with age (see Salthhouse, 2001b; Salthouse et al., 2003; Bakos et al 2008; Birren & Schaie, 2006), this is an important factor that needs to be considered when designing e-learning environments for elderly learners.   The activities employed in the present study catered for such a decline to some extent.  For example, via prescribed steps.  One learner appraised in regard to the prescribed numbered steps:

“I thought they [prescribed steps] were helpful because I couldn’t get lost.  When I entered the page there was a lot on the page, so I thought it was good the way they were numbered ...  numbers are a good idea because you know what to do next and, in that way, you don’t go in the wrong direction.” (Learner 3)

The following observation illustrates a learner’s thoughts on the guide video:

The learner clicked on the ‘Guide’ button and watched the video on how to proceed through the activity in the Presentation activity.  He thought the video was a good idea and helpful, but he had not watched it before he had done the first activity.  He said regrettably: “I probably should have clicked on this first, but I didn’t notice it at first. (Learner 3)

5.2.3.2. Attention

Hasher & Zacks, (1988) referred to in Kramer et al. (2006) reports that elderly people find it more and more difficult to differentiate between relevant and non relevant information required to successfully complete a given task. Further, elderly Web users tend to click on images and text that are not links (Easterby & Hakiel, 1981).    Easterby & Hakiel (1981) found that symbols that are recognised easily may still cause difficulties for the elderly user in determining what they signify.  This was also found within the present study, when instead of clicking of the recognisable start button to start a transition, the learner clicked on the big feature:

The learner dithered around the transition activity.  Instead of clicking the start button to hear the pronunciation, the learner clicked on the “big feature” (i.e. the transition image) (Learner 3)

In the following observation the learner clicked unnecessarily on a stop button:

The learner listened to the audio, but then got a bit confused.  The learner’s confusion was revealed when after the recording had already stopped, he clicked on the stop button.  Needless to say, this was unnecessary and the learner did not reveal any verbal or non verbal awareness of what he had just done (Learner 3)

This indicates that the learner may have become distracted by something on the actual screen page or perhaps, there was some type of internal psychological or emotional interference. For whatever the reason it occurred in this particular case, it points to the challenge for designers to streamline instruction and simplify designs and thereby, avoid learner distractions. 

5.2.3.2.1. The split-attention effect

Badly designed instruction material can cause the attention of a learner to split. A split-attention effect comes about when the learning mechanisms employed involve the processing of the target information presented simultaneously from a variety of sources.  The key here is that none of the output from each of the sources is understood without the output from other sources.  This would be the case in a Web-based learning environment whereby visuals, textual and or audio are employed to present a variety of information on the one Web page.  For example, if the textual explanation of a chart is provided in a slide show to the side of it, this would cause cognitive overload, and require the learners’ attention to be split.  The learner cannot understand either of the presentations in isolation from each other, and this forces the learners to go back and forward between each of them to understand both of them (Sweller, 1994).  According to Mayer’s Spatial Contiguity Principle (2005), more effective learning outcomes are produced when words and their corresponding or related symbols and images are situated in close proximity to each other, as opposed to at a distance from each other.

In light of the findings drawn from the recordings of learners interacting with the activities and in view of Mayer’s spatial contiguity principle (2005), the theory of cognitive load and split attention, it was found that the original design of the Presentation activity produces  cognitive overload (see Figure 5.5).  This is because the English translation is located beneath the Italian text.  What is more, when accessed by the learner, the English translation actually partially blocks the Italian text and consequently, the learner cannot view both texts concurrently. The following assertion and observation highlight responses to the extraneous cognitive load in regard to the presentation activity:

“ ...  I didn’t really understand it at first and I had to look at the translation at a different time.  I thought it could have been clearer“(Learner 2)  (See Figure 5.5)

Also:

The learner read and listened to both presentation texts.  He was curious to know what the texts meant in English.  Due to this, he wanted to listen again to the audios of each text while reading its corresponding translation.  He felt he should have had the option to read the Italian text and its English translation in close proximity to each other.  At the point in which this learner tested, the translation was relatively distant from the Italian text and some of the Italian text was being blocked when the translation was accessed by a the learner (Learner 2) (see Figure 5.5)

 

Figure 5.5 Original Design - Presentation Activity Location of English translation causes split attention and blocks part of the Italian text

The final design of the presentation activity addresses the issue of split attention. In the final design of the presentation activity (see Figure 5.6) learners can view the Italian text and the English translation in close proximity to one another and no text is being blocked.  When questioned whether the translation was helpful, the learner who tested in both the first and the final test replied subsequent to the final test:

“Yes, very - especially in the first [presentation] activity.  I was able to read and listen to the Italian and also look at the English translation sentence by sentence.”  (Final Test)(See Figure 5.6)

Figure 5.6 Final Design - Presentation Activity – Translation is available on click next to Italian text

To effectively improve Web-based education, the graphical user interface and multimedia displays need to consider how effective design can preclude cognitive overload (Feinberg & Murphy 2000). Extraneous cognitive load is forced by bad instructional design. Badly designed learning instruction requires learners to exert cognitive activity irrelevant to answering the questions.   Germane cognitive load employs energy related directly to solving the problem at hand.  This occurs when the objectives are clearly defined and presented and procedures are favourable to efficient and effective achievement of learning objectives. To maximise learning outcome, designers need to minimise extraneous cognitive load. This can be done by  reducing irrelevant instruction while simultaneously exploiting germane load by providing enough relevant material. This allows the learners to use their cognitive capacities to optimize learning outcome (Schmutz et al.,  2009)

The activities employed in this study were designed to keep cognitive load to a minimum ( see Sweller, 1994; Feinberg & Murphy 2000; Mayer, 2005; Schmutz et al.,  2009) and also to maximise intrinsic load. To achieve this, elements were kept simple and straightforward while endeavouring to provide adequate novelty and challenge for the learner.  Where the initial designs demonstrated shortfalls in this aim, the redesigns attained this aim.  During interviews, when the learners were asked whether they needed to concentrate more doing some activities than others, the following replies indicate intrinsic cognitive load:

“[I had to concentrate more when doing] the activities that were harder ...  Like when you were required to read and listen at the same time, as in the one about the two Italian people - so that meant you had to concentrate more. “ (Learner 4)

And:

“... some required reading and listening. But, also when you had to select the right answer– this meant having to put more effort in than in the others were there wasn’t much pressing down on the buttons.  For the alphabet activity I had to concentrate when I was listening to the pronunciation of the letters.  I liked that one.” (Learner 4)

When the learners were asked what things annoyed them about technology today, the following replies suggest that interfaces which overtax the senses with extraneous cognitive load are among the most annoying things:

“ I don’t really like when the screen is overcrowded or when the colours are very black.“... “...when the screen is black” (Learner 1)

And:

“I don’t like cluttered pages”(Learner 3)

Also:

“Bad colour schemes and too many items on the screen.” (Learner 4)

These appraisals by the learners point to the need for designs that minimise cognitive load by reducing unnecessary elements and avoid overcrowding.   They also indicate that designs should exploit colour schemes that enhance visibility of items on a Web page.  In addition, dependent elements should be in close proximity to each other. The Alphabet activities provided germane cognitive load and this was found to aid in the achievement of learning objectives.  The learners needed to combine diverse items of the activity to achieve the learning objectives.  However, combining the diverse items did not detract from learning, as would be the case with extraneous cognitive load.  Each item, such as viewing a letter and its phonetic spelling, listening to the pronunciation of that letter and clicking on that letter all combine to enable the learner to spell a word and act together in presenting and reinforcing the target language. In this way, learners are able to achieve learning objectives.  The following learners’ communications illustrate the usefulness of germane cognitive load in relation to the alphabet activity:

“...  I had to press a lot of keys to listen to the different letters and spell the words. I think that you’d really learn the Italian alphabet well with that activity.”  “ I had to listen and understand the letter and press the right letter.  You had to do a lot of that so it required more effort”.  “The alphabet was interesting.  I think it would be a good way to learn the alphabet.”  “... you can press on the keys and hear and see the letter and it looks good. I thought it was laid out well and you were able to listen to an explanation of the Italian alphabet.”

Synchronisation was another matter that surfaced in the study. The lack of synchronisation between the dependent elements within the alphabet transition activity was highlighted by learners.  However, this issue was addressed in the final stages of the iterative process and for the final test, the images and audios were synchronised.  The following comment by a learner indicates a need for synchronisation: 

“it would have been preferable if you had the sound synchronised”. (Learner 4)

In the final test the learner who had also participated in the first test communicated the capacity of the activity to engage the learner:

The learner listened to the entire alphabet and explanation and clicked on individual letters.  She navigated to the transition activity where she pressed the play button to commence the recording and transition of letters. She orally practised the pronunciation of the letters in time with the transition and audio.  She said “this would be really helpful in memorising the letters.  Yes, I find this really good.”   (Final Test)

All the data discussed above from the empirical research and from prior published studies indicates that designers need to take into account the probable decline in executive functions of an elderly learner.  Simplicity may be key in this respect.  Instructional design and interactivity design needs to be very “clear” and precise.  The elderly learner must be able to predict what is going to happen when they click of link or a button.  Novelty can make learning more interesting, but the findings from this study indicate that mechanisms must be available for the learners to understand the new presentation or way of doing something.  E-learning environments which incorporate prescribed steps may help counteract the negative effects of a learner’s declining executive functions.

5.2.3.3. Processing Speed

While speed can be of utmost importance in a lot everyday circumstances, it can also be the cause of many errors.  Age correlated declines in visual search, spatial abilities and memory tasks seem to be mainly attributable to the slowing down of processing speed in elderly people and not attributable solely to the task at hand (Dye, Green, & Bavelier,  2009).  The following observation may serve to highlight an example of age related interference in the processing of stimuli.  This incident occurred while the learner was interacting with the alphabet practise activity:

At one point the learner was required to click ‘n’, but instead in passed over the letter ‘n’ and clicked on ‘j’.   He then returned back down to ‘n’, which he then clicked on.  This indicated that he knew and remembered it was ‘n’ he needed to click on.

Externally, what the above observation seems to convey is slowness in processing speed. The information appeared to be encoded properly by the learner, which was expressed by his obvious understanding of what he needed to do, as well as the fact that he independently selected the correct letter eventually.  This scenario may indicate that there was some emotional interference or psychological noise going on that distracted the learner’s movements or perhaps the way the alphabet was laid out caused split attention.  However, the latter was not suggested in any other cases.  The scope of this study was unable to determine the exact cause.  However, it does indicate that designers need to provide clear instructions and specify clear procedures.

Conclusions drawn from a study by Dye, Green, & Bavelier (2009) suggest that video games may have the capacity to assist in improving the reaction times of elderly people while, at the same time, not compromising accuracy.  However, the study by Dye, Green, & Bavelier (2009) focused on visual, fast tasks and, therefore, could not determine the affect on cognitively demanding tasks. Nevertheless, the above study is very interesting, and the significance of an activity that can quicken the processing abilities in elderly learners is worth investigating further.   For the present study the design of activities focussed on accommodating and catering for decline in cognitive processing speed as opposed to improving processing abilities.  Nevertheless, through repetition and practice, the study found that the elderly learners were capable of improving the speed at which they processed incoming stimuli.  The following observation of this case in particular points to this capability:

The learner accessed the activity.  He read the instructions slowly and, although his hands were unsteady, he knew what he had to do and what would happen if he got it wrong or right.  He had some difficulty with coordination; however, he put in a lot of effort to drag the word under the corresponding picture.  He repeatedly failed and repeatedly tried again each time saying “I’d say it’d be easy enough when you get to know it.”  His coordination and use of the mouse improved as he went through the subsequent activities and by the fourth exercise in this genre, his accuracy had improved and his speed had picked up. ... (Learner 2)

Kramer, (2006) reports that cross sectional and longitudinal research undertaken by Park et al. (2003) and by Schaie, (2002) illustrate that fluid abilities decline with age.  Fluid abilities are not dependent on experience, but rely on processing speed, analysing, encoding stimuli and information, and retrieval abilities (McArdle et al., 2002; Park et al., 2003; Schaie, 2002; Birren & Schaie, 2006). Crystallized abilities i.e. verbal ability, accumulation and retention of vocabulary and comprehension are sustained or may actually progress with age (Baltes, Staudinger & Lindenberger, 1999; Birren & Schaie, 2006).  In studies carried out by Christensen et al. (2001) no relationship was found between education and the speed at which cognitive functioning declines.  What is more, intelligence tests have demonstrated that in tests with short time frames for completion, the elderly person will generally do worse than a younger person.  However, when tasks have no time limit, the elderly person will often do equally as well as their younger counterparts (Reid Lyon & Knasegor, 1995).  The following observation demonstrates how an elderly learner likes to take time to absorb instruction:

The learner had no problems navigating into the activity.  She read instructions carefully, taking her time; she understood to press the listen button. She commented “it’s very clear what to do” (Learner 1)

The following observation further illustrates how the learner paced herself:

 The learner read the instructions and then listened to the question. She searched around the screen moving the cursor around slowly. (Learner 1)

The above evidence implies that designers of e-learning environments need to consider the processing speed of elderly learners.  This would indicate that designs should avoid overtaxing the faculties related to fluid intelligence and capitalize on crystallised intelligence.  This might be done by creating activities that allow an elderly learner to draw on past experiences or interests.  In addition, perhaps designs should allow elderly learners to successfully complete tasks in a self paced fashion and maximise learning through the provision of reinforcement activities.

5.2.3.4. Memory

When designing e-learning environments, designers should bear in mind those complex activities which introduce a lot of new information within short time frames and which require a lot of mental manipulation become increasingly difficult as we age.   Studies highlight that memory is impacted by age.  Shortfalls in memory due to ageing are more prominent when the elderly are presented with new information in an unknown cognitive realm (Welford, 1980).  Deficits in memory were a frequent recurrent theme identified in the replies within all interviews. The following examples illustrate this recurrence:

“Not that I can remember anyway.”, “I can’t really say exactly what the differences are.”, “I can’t really remember really.”, “I can’t remember which one, I can’t really remember – nothing springs to mind now.” and “I can’t think of anything at the moment”. “I can’t really remember exactly, but I felt things went pretty smoothly this time.”   

Furthermore, Millar, (1956) argues that the average person has the capacity to hold a limited amount of information in short-term memory and after that information loss occurs. If a learner is required to process simultaneously more than seven pieces of information, the working memory becomes overloaded (Millar, 1956). Although the learners in this study were not required to learn more than seven ‘chunks’ of information within one activity, the combination of the four types of activities and the number of exercises they were required to complete within each type of activity would have presented the learner with more than seven chunks of information.  Due to this and the fact that the scope of the study did not allow much time for reinforcement, the learners’ communications on what they had learned indicates a lack of memorisation of presented language.

“... [I] didn’t really have time to memorise anything, but I think if I practised, I’d remember the words.”

And:

“... I learned ‘donna’ means woman.  I can’t really remember, I think I’d have to do the activities again.  A few times I’d say to remember.”

Elderly people can find it difficult to retrieve words and facts. For example, she or he may have difficulty recalling people’s names or perhaps, the names of familiar objects.  Nevertheless, information which has accumulated over a person’s lifetime is generally retained especially when it has been drawn on repeatedly over time (Schaie, 1996).  Although vocabulary usually continues to increase throughout a person’s life time, retrieval of that vocabulary may become more of an issue as we age (Reid Lyon & Knasegor, 1995). Memory is an important factor that designers need to take into account when designing e-learning environments, particularly in relation to older learners.  Memory aids such as visuals and reducing the number of items to be absorbed in a lesson helps.  Key to retention of information is reinforcement.  This means that e-learning environments should include effective mechanisms whereby the elderly learner can practise and in this way reinforce the subject matter.

5.2.4.   Conclusion - Capacity

When designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners, designers need to consider a number of important factors.  The capacity of the learner was an overarching theme I identified through thematic analysis.   Aging is linked with a continuous decline of cognitive and physiological capacities (Kattenstroth et al., 2010).  Changes to the anatomy of eye and to the anatomy of the ear may occur as we age.  Such occurrences can have negative consequences for an elderly person’s sight and cause hearing loss.  These anatomical changes are not remote from our brains.   Sensory experiences are evoked through auditory and visual stimuli, and as a result, our brains grow and develop. Visual signals and images caught by our eyes require cognitive processing in order to provide an understanding of their context and meaning (Compton, Shroyer & Niemeyer 2004).  In regard to cognitive performance, the executive functions have a central role in directing activities.  Various executive functions weaken with age (see Bakos et al., 2008). The effects of such weakening can provide valuable insights for instructional designers. In light of the findings presented and discussed in this report, designers need to cater for the learners’ age-related changes to their physical, sensory and cognitive capacities.  The factors identified within the context of these changes, I perceive, need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners.

5.3 Sense of Control: an overarching theme

        

Figure 5.3.1  Factors Identified in this study within the Context of Sense of Control

5.3.1. Introduction

Sense of Control was an overarching theme identified through my search to identify the factors that need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners. Seven factors were identified within this theme.  They are as follows: Goal Clarity; Self-confidence; Options; Novelty, Expectations, Errors and Achievement (see Figure 5.3.1).   Following my identification of the factors through inductive thematic analysis, each factor was then explored in relation to prior studies and research.   As a result, this report presents the findings and analysis in relation to both the empirical research and an exploration of relevant literature. 

Both a person’s physical and psychological health hinges on the extent to which s/he feels in control and autonomous (Rodin, Timko, & Harris, 1985). To feel in control, the learner needs to understand what the objectives are and how to go about achieving them. The ability to control events can lead to feelings of satisfaction.  This is supported by a  study carried out by  (Tetrick & LaRocco, 1987) which found that the capacity to comprehend, predict, and control procedures in a work situation is capable of decreasing the possible damaging  consequences commonly linked with specific work situations. The study indicates that not possessing the ability to comprehend, predict and control events is directly related with apparent stress. However, only the ability to control events was significantly linked to feelings of satisfaction (Tetrick & LaRocco, 1987). 


One of the elements that impacts on a learner’s confidence levels is locus of control (Keller, 1987). Shneiderman (1997) incorporates the concept of internal locus of control in his Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design.  Further, according to Keller’s (1983) ARCS Model of Motivation, learners need to judge themselves to have some level of control in relation to their learning and results.  Learners need to believe that achievement is an express result of the quantity of effort applied.  Locus of control also has relevance within the experience of ‘flow’, where a sense of control over an activity is engendered in the experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Neilsen, (1994) includes user control and feedback as one of the key heuristics for evaluating computer-based applications.  The need for feedback is also in line with Keller’s (1983) ARCS model under the satisfaction component.    

5.3.2. Goal Clarity

Traditional learning provision requires effective cognitive processes; the learner-controlled multimedia environment can challenge a learner’s cognitive skills even further.  However, the growth of cognitive skills within such environments hinges on the learners selection of navigational paths. If the most efficient and effective sequence of instruction is followed, this may enhance learning outcome and improve self-efficacy.  Furthermore, if within these multimedia environments, learners are provided with complete and unrestricted control along with undefined learning objectives, this can reduce the effectiveness of learning (Kozma, 1991).  To provide enough control to the elderly learner, a prescribed sequence of steps was integrated in the design of the activities employed in the present study.  This provision proved useful and this usefulness was highlighted by a learner when he was asked whether he thought the prescribed numbered steps were helpful:

“I think the numbers kept me from going off track. I knew exactly what to do which was helpful for me.” (Learner 2)

Also:

“I thought they were helpful because I couldn’t get lost. When I entered the page there was a lot on the page, so I thought it was good the way they were there. ...  Numbers are a good idea because you know what to do next and in that way you don’t go in the wrong direction.” (Learner 3)

And:

“Very helpful! I mean it was hard to go wrong when the steps were there to follow. I knew what to do.” (Learner 4)

In the final test the repeat tester, informed:

“I thought it was helpful to have numbered steps in all the activities.  I was able to complete the activities easily without going off course.” (Final Test)

Despite the provision of the steps and the positive attitudes towards them, learners at times communicated a lack of understanding of the objectives. Without a clear understanding of goals, it is difficult to feel a sense of control and to know what to do next (see Keller, 1983; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Learners indicated their lack of understanding:

“It’s because I didn’t really understand it at first.” (Learner 1)

And:

“Sometimes I didn’t know what do next.” (Learner 1)

Further, the following account of an observation while a learner was interacting with the drag and drop activities highlights how a lack of understanding of the goals can have a negative effect on a learner’s attitude toward the learning activity:

In the drag and drop exercise the learner needed assistance understanding what he had to do.  Overall, this participant had the most difficulty understanding what to do.  As a result, his attitude at times seemed negative, so even though he said he was engaged, at times he did not appear to be engaged when participating in some of the activities.  ...  The learner felt that “when there are five or six questions together, you’re able to get them out of the way quicker”.  (Learner 3)

Furthermore, video guides which illustrate the goals of activities, and the procedures required to reach them, can actually cause more confusion for the elderly learner if the learner fails to differentiate between the video and the actual activity and when the exit point is not clearly signposted.The following assertion highlights such a scenario:  

“I got confused between the video and the real screen- I didn’t know how to get out of it.” (Learner 2)

This indicates that when providing a video guide, it should be presented in such away that the learner can distinguish it from the actual activity.  It also indicates that exit points should draw the learner’s attention to facilitate navigation or else automatically close at the end of the video. However, Shneiderman, (1997) indicates that automation could also confuse and perhaps, provoke feelings of reduced control.

 

5.3.3. Self-confidence

Rodin, Timko, & Harris, (1985) argue that a vital factor affecting a person’s psychological performance is the confidence that she or he has in his or her capacity to successfully complete diverse activities. Keller’s (1983) ARCS Motivation Model suggests that learners must be confident for effective learning to occur.  Confidence levels are impacted by the extent to which a learner feels in control and likewise, the learner’s locus of control impacts on level of confidence (Keller, 1987; Keller, 1983). Learners may sometimes experience feelings of insecurities and a lack of self-confidence. Elderly people lack confidence in their abilities and this can create obstacles. Older adults show less confidence in comparison to their younger counterparts in relation to knowledge of computers (Marquié & Jourdan-Boddaert , 2002; Slegers et al., 2006).  However, elderly computer users’ self-confidence grew significantly following a period of “three weeks of learning computer games and computer-based communication.” (Box Xie,  2003, p.29).   In the present study, learners showed variations in their confidence levels throughout their interactions with the activities. Issues around confidence were also brought to the fore during interviews.  However, the learner who had already a little knowledge of Italian coming to the study, and who was also more experienced with computers, demonstrated more self-confidence when interacting with the activities than did the other three learners. The following observation highlights the learner’s confidence:

On access to the first activity, he knew exactly where to go.  He navigated easily, read the instructions carefully and he understood immediately what was required. He proceeded to follow the prescribed sequence and listened and read both of the presentation texts with no problems.  (Learner 4)

Further, the same learner asserted during the interview session:

“I thought it was an interesting way to learn the alphabet. It was well presented and there was also a reinforcement activity. “ (Learner 4)

And:

“I enjoyed most of the activities.  Some better than others, but overall they were good ways of learning.” (Learner 4)

The ARCS Model of Motivation (1983) highlights the importance confidence is to learning (see Keller, 1983).  What is more, where a person endures external doubt in relation to the effect of his or her behaviour, this will make it difficult for a state of ‘flow’ to occur.  When a person experiences ‘flow’ while doing an activity, she or he perceives it be pleasing, fascinating, and fundamentally worthwhile  (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and if a learner perceives external activities as the main drivers of success, as opposed to personal effort, then this may increase or reduce confidence depending of the circumstances (Keller, 1987).  However, when a learner is too confident and certain of a particular outcome, this might reduce level of engagement.  This implies that when designing to fully engage the learner, a balance needs to be struck between providing the learner with too much certainty or with not enough certainty (see Hsiang, 2011).

In the present study, when the elderly learners were confident about what they had to do and had a clear grasp of the goals and their ability to achieve them. They seemed to be able to make good guesses.  However, when the learners were unsure, this seem to make them feel a bit nervous.  The elderly participants at times communicated their feelings of nervousness and  how they felt unconfident when they did not quite understand what to do or how to proceed:       

“[I felt] a bit nervous at first but then I started to get into it.”  (Learner 2)

When a learner was asked why he felt nervous - he replied:

“I’ve never done this sort of thing before and I’ve never done Italian, so I wasn’t sure whether I’d be able for it.” (Learner 2)

Also:

“[I felt] a bit unsure at times.” (Learner 3)

When learners lacked confidence in how to proceed, this led to a negative appraisal of the activity.  This was illustrated by a learner when she was asked which activity he preferred the least, he responded:

“... maybe the first one because I wasn’t sure what to do and I couldn’t find the translation.” (First Test)

The learner that tested in both the first and final tests highlights the relevance of familiarity and certainty to his self-confidence:

 ” ... I felt more confident this time round.  I can’t really remember details exactly, but I felt things went pretty smoothly this time.”  (Final Test)

Although the learner was more familiar and sure of what to do, he also communicated it was a lot easier. The improved ease with which the learner proceeded through the activities, in this particular case, appears to have had a positive effect on the learner.  Nevertheless, activities that are too easy and lack challenge might not be as engaging for the learner. Csikszentmihalyi, (1990) advises that mismatches of skill set with level of challenge can lead to apathy, anxiety or relaxation depending on the ratio of skill to challenge and on their level   Designers need also to consider this factor when designing technologies to engage elderly learners.

5.3.4. Options 

To perceive oneself as having options can be of greater importance to a person’s health than other factors such as diet. It also has the capacity to reduce stress (Rock, 2011).  The provision of interesting options is a key element within an effective learning environment (Darling-Hammond, 2001).  In consideration of the claims made by Rodin & Timko, (1991) in regard to the negative effect of too much choice - when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners - the factor of choice needs to be considered. Schneiderman (2003) suggests that a well designed user interface should provide the mechanisms whereby users may control interactions independently and with ease (Schneiderman, 2003).  The above insights indicate that e-learning environments should be designed in such a way that they provide adequate choice by way of options, to cater for a vital sense of control, while by the same token restricting choice, especially in relation to navigation paths and, in so doing, deter unnecessary stress. In the present study, the designs of activities provide options to learners, whereby learners are required to select the correct answer or image from two and three options.  Moreover, options in terms of navigation is limited. This strategy proved effective and appears to have provided the elderly learners with a sense of control. The following assertion indicates the learners need to have the option to start and stop recordings:

 “I like the way it’s laid out and you can … again stop it [the listening] if you don’t want to go through the whole thing.”  (Learner 1)

Options can create a sense of challenge, produce focus of attention, deep concentration and feelings of satisfaction and thereby, engage an elderly learner and, as a result, the learner may feel more in control to effect learning outcome. A response by a learner informs of this capacity:

“... when you had to select the right answer– this meant having to put more effort in than in the others where there wasn’t much pressing down on the button.  For the alphabet activity, I had to concentrate when I was listening to the pronunciation of the letter so I could select the correct letter.  I liked that one.” (Learner 4)

Automatic mechanisms may sometimes deny options and reduce a sense of control. Shneiderman (1997) advises that if an autonomous component of an application does not hinder prediction or restrict control negatively, it can be beneficial to the user. However, automatic transitions can be frustrating for learners if they do not provide the learner with the option to stop and restart them at any point if so desired. In response to a question on things that are annoying about technology today, a learner replied in relation to automatic transitions:

“...they don’t always give you time to finish looking at the images or to finish reading the texts.”....(Learner 1)

In the present study, the options available to the learner in relation to the navigational system were limited to ensure that the elderly learner did not get distracted or get lost.  The only page that contained links to every activity was the presentation page.  Learners would have to return to this page to access the different activities; otherwise they only had a choice to go forward, back and to the presentation page.  This navigational system proved effective and enabled the elderly learners to proceed with ease from one activity to the other.  The following communications indicate the effectiveness of this system:

“It’s  very easy to go around the site ....” (Learner 1)

And the same learner was observed:

The learner navigated with ease to the alphabet presentation page. Immediately on access to this page, he communicated he liked design of course he thought it was “spacious” (Learner 1)

In terms of options provided by buttons or drop-down menus, findings from this study indicate that elderly learners have a preference for options which are presented in button form that bring the learner directly to their desired destination, as opposed to drop down menus.  During her interactions with one of the activities the learner orally reported:

“I like the idea of buttons, I think people find them easier to use.  I know you need drop-down menus for some things, but I think when there are more buttons, people use them easier.” (Learner 1)

The above communication implies that navigational options that are provided in button form and take the learner directly to the desired location are preferred to drop down menus that provide even more options to choose from. Thus, simple and direct navigational designs may provide the elderly e-learner with an augmented sense of control.

5.3.5. Expectation

Wiltbank et al., (2009) argue, when we make predictions about the future, we expect success.  In a study carried out by Rich & Belkin (2000), the participants were observed as they made predictions about Web pages. The study found that if the Web page they accessed corresponded to the participants’ expectations, the participant remained on the page. However, if the Web page did not meet the participant’s expectations, they moved on to another page (Rich & Belkin, 2000).  This present study found that misleading indications and instructions related to an activity can lead to unexpected events and thereby, cause confusion.   One learner made a decision on the basis of bad signposting and because the result was unexpected, he became confused. This indicates that bad and/or inconsistent labelling and signposting can interfere with the expected results of decisions and, as a result, lead to confusion and reduced engagement. :

“... when it said press enter, like, when you accessed the site and you don’t know whether to press the keyboard or the button on the site.  It can be a bit confusing.”  (Learner 4)

In relation to labelling which is inconsistent with a learner’s expectations, another learner said:

 “ If the words on the button didn’t accurately describe what they do – I got a bit confused.” (Learner 1)

 When asked which activity learners like the least one learner informed:

“Maybe the first one because I wasn’t sure what to do.”

The above assertion indicates that when learners are unsure and do not know what to expect, they may find it difficult to engage with the activity at hand. If the unexpected occurs regularly in an e-learning environment this could provoke negative attitudes and perhaps lead to disengagement. Conversely, the study also found that when the content is familiar to learners, they know what to expect. This means they can make more accurate guesses or predictions.  As a result, more successful decisions ensue, which in turn may lead to higher levels of engagement.  In the present study, the learner who retested in the final test obviously had some prior knowledge of the activities coming to the final test, despite the modifications to the original designs and a three month time lapse since she had first tested.  She communicated in the context of the final test:

“I thought it was very well designed and worked very smoothly.  I found it interesting. It was easy to work things out” (Final Test).

Furthermore, in the present study, one of the learners found it hard to differentiate between the activity and the guide video.  Consequently, when the video stopped and a dark brown colour filled the screen, the learner did not expect this to happen.  As a result, the learner became mildly shocked and confused because an unexpected event occurred:

The learner read the introduction and there were no problems. He then independently decided to click the ‘Demo’ button to view the video demonstration.  When this video ended he paused and seemed mildly shocked and confused. He commented that the dark (brown) colour which filled the monitor after the video was confusing. He had difficulty deciding what to do next even though the instructions in the video had just informed of what he had to do (Learner 2)

Another learner became confused when he clicked on the “big feature “on the page and nothing happened.  He had expected a transition to commence, and when it did not, he became confused:

The learner dithered around the transition activity.  Instead of clicking the start button to hear the pronunciation, the learner clicked on the “big feature” (i.e. the transition image).  He seemed confused when nothing happened and paused for quite a while before he eventually realised he needed to press the start button to start the transition. (Learner 3)

Further, in relation to the concept of expectations, when a function does not meet its expected effect in an efficient way, learners may become frustrated.  This was indicated by a learner during the interview session when he was asked whether there was anything that annoyed him when using technology today. In reply to that question, the learner mentioned the predictive behaviour within mobile phones:

“I don’t like when you’re writing a text message and it keeps predicting the wrong word.  That really annoys me. I just give up...” (Learner 3)

This indicates that when ‘predictive” functions fail to perform as a person expects, then the person may become frustrated. If this failure occurs repetitively, the person may “give up” and not avail further of that function. Designers of e-learning environments which aim to engage elderly learners would need to take this factor into account and avoid incorporating anything that might interfere with the logical expectations of the learner.

5.3.6.   Novelty

Repetition can be boring and irritating for the learner.  Therefore, it is important to create variety and novelty in order to keep the learner stimulated and sustain engagement levels. In Keller’s (1987) ARCS Model of Motivational Design he claims that attention can be gained in two ways: 1. Perceptual arousal – this uses surprise or uncertainty to gain interest.  This indicates the use of novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events; or 2. Inquiry arousal – this stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved. However, in a Web environment, characteristics that are recognizable to the end-user render a task easier to complete and this allows the learner to feel a sense of security.   Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between familiarity and novelty (Inchauste, 2009).   The design of the alphabet activity seemed to strike this balance by employing a novel way of presenting, practicing and reinforcing a topic which is familiar to learners.  This novel approach appeared to increase the interest and engagement levels of learners:

“... the Alphabet exercise was good and a clever way of learning the alphabet.” (First Test)

Perhaps, familiarity does not so much concede real control, but it may allow the learner to feel an augmented sense of control. The learner who tested in the first test also retested in final test.  Although she retested in the final test three months after the first test, she came to the final test with some degree of familiarity. This learner appeared to have an augmented sense of control in the final test:

I think it’s that I was more familiar, at a subconscious level anyway, with the activities this time and it seemed a lot easier. (Final Test)

And:

I thought it was very well designed and worked very smoothly.  I found it interesting. It was easy to work things out. (Final Test)

Also:

“I think the activities are eye-catching, simple and interesting and a good way to learn vocabulary and phrases for people who don’t know any Italian.  I think they achieve their objectives.” (Final Test)

If the learner’s sense of control is kept in tact, novelty can cater for the curiosity of the elderly learner and trigger interest in the learner and thereby, sustain high engagement levels (see Keller, 1983).  The video guide introduced a relatively novel idea to the learners who participated in the present study. However, the effect on one learner in particular was more akin to a state of shock and confusion than to Csiksentmihali’s (1990) state of ‘flow’.

“I think the video is a good idea, but the dark colours at the end confused me and I went blank.” .. (Learner 2)

And the learner highlights his feelings of embarrassment and frustration when interacting with the ‘Drag and Drop’ activity, which was a novel type of activity for all the participant learners:

“I was a bit embarrassed when with the dragging; it kept ‘flying away’.  I’d say it would be easy once you get the hang of it.” (Learner 2)

However, with repetition the learner’s skill and coordination in relation to the ‘Drag and Drop’ activity improved. As a result, the learner regained a sense of control.  What all the above comments indicate is that designers need to provide enough novelty to attract and sustain the learner’s interest, while, at the same time, provide enough familiarity and guidance to reassure an elderly e-learner and afford him or her a sense of control.

5.3.7. Errors

Errors was another factor that stemmed from sense of control and was recurrent in the dataset. Hasher & Zacks, (1988); Alain & Woods, (1999) report that elderly adults are more susceptible to distractions.  Moreover, when distracted by irrelevant stimuli elderly adults tend to retain their attention on the stimuli for longer than younger adults who will hastily stop giving any attention to the stimuli.  As a result, completion of a task may be slowed for the elderly adult and this can result in errors (Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Alain & Woods, 1999).  Furthermore, making mistakes can very easily create a sense of frustration for end users. Therefore, reducing the probability of errors should be a key objective for interface designers. Neilsen’s (1994) usability heuristics advise that preventive measures should be employed in relation to errors (Neilsen, 1994). An effective technique for preventing errors is to limit the user’s actions.  As a result of fewer errors, users will feel more engaged (Schneiderman, 2003).  This technique may have added significance for an elderly learner due to changes in cognitive and motor functioning. Reid Lyon & Knasegor, (1995) report that along with the slowing down of cognitive processes in elderly people, so too do their motor movements.   What is more, a decline in overall coordination and manual agility is another common manifestation in the aging of older individuals (Reid Lyon & Knasegor, 1995). The present study found that making mistakes can be embarrassing for the elderly adult. This may also be indicative of the ‘observer effect’ because it is unlikely that someone would feel embarrassed in this context when alone.  However, it may also be indicative of an elderly person’s negative appraisal of self in relation to making mistakes and competence in execution:

“I felt I at times a little self conscious when I made a mistake or didn’t know which direction to take. “ (Learner 1)

And:

“I was a bit embarrassed when with the dragging, it kept flying away.  I’d say it would be easy once you get the hang of it.”(Learner 2)

With the aim of minimising the probability of errors, the activities in the study required the learners to follow just a small number of steps to reach objectives.  Moreover, these steps were numbered and as directed by the iterative process employed, they were redesigned to address problems of lack of prominence.  These steps were judged to be of great value to all the learners. Indeed all the learners willingly and independently followed the prescribed steps:

“... the numbers are a good idea because you know what to do next and in that way you don’t go in the wrong direction.” (Learner 3)

Thus, providing reset buttons to enable the learners to clear their previous input and to try again proved to be an effective way of allowing the learner an adequate level of control to effect satisfaction and avoid frustration. Interaction and voice recordings captured this effectiveness. 

The learner read the instructions slowly.  Once she understood how to proceed, she selected one of the options.  This was the wrong answer which she understood by the immediate feedback.  She then reset and tried again. This experience did not frustrate her, but instead she communicated that she had learned something and said the activity “works” and “it was a very easy way to learn words” (Final Test)

The reason why the learner did not feel frustrated appeared to be due to the provision of immediate feedback (see Keller, 1983) and the ease in which the learner was able clear the wrong answer and recommence.  This provided the learner with an added sense of control.  Many errors may also be a result of speed.  When decisions are made quickly this can lead to an increase in mistakes (Dye, Green, & Bavelier, 2009).  The following communication by the learner who tested in the first and final tests indicates how self-paced procedures can discourage a learner from feeling pressurised by time.  In relation to the activity ‘guess the word’:

“... I like the way it is self paced because you’re not pressurised by time” (First Test)

Providing activities that allow the learner to determine their own pace may be of particular importance to elderly learners.  Self-paced activities are likely to prevent feelings of time pressure, reduce the probability of errors and provide an increased sense of control to the learner. 

5.3.8. Achievement

If the subject matter and visual and auditory content has relevance to the learner, this will enable him or her to stay motivated and, as a result, complete the task at hand.  The knock on effect is that the learner will experience a sense of achievement and satisfaction (see Keller, 1987).   However, regardless of how interesting a task might be for the learner, Smith et al. (1999) report that there is an age related decline in achievement of objectives when tasks require more complicated motor skills and sequential speed, as for example, when double clicking on the mouse. In the present study, a learner demonstrated how important achieving the objectives of the task at hand was for him:

The learner showed intense concentration doing one of the drag and drop exercises and hence engagement when he demonstrated his intrinsic need to complete one of the longer drag and drop exercises.  He was so determined to successfully achieve the objectives of the task that when the researcher asked him a question he ignored it or was not aware it (Learner 4)

Feelings of achievement are influenced by the level of difficulty of the task.  If skill is greater than challenge, this will educe boredom.  If challenge is much higher than skill set then frustration would ensue (Csiksentmihali, 1990).  Schneiderman (2003) claims a sense of achievement is essential to an end user.   He claims that when the tasks are completed by automatic agents a sense of achievement diminishes.   Furthermore, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) advises to take on challenges that sketch you.  Challenge was a theme that was recurrent in the dataset. The need for challenge is illustrated by the following response:

“... I had to think more about some things than others ...  because some things are more difficult than others. For example, I had to try harder to figure out what I had to do.   But I think when you have to concentrate hard, it  makes it more challenging and I like a bit of challenge, but not too difficult.” (Learner 1)

And the same learner:

“I had to try to work out what I had to do because sometimes I wasn’t sure how to proceed – but I managed to do everything in the end.”  (Learner 1)

An elderly learner can feel a sense of pride or elation when they successfully achieve learning objectives, as demonstrated by the reaction of one of the learners:

The learner ...  clicked on an image and a correct sign appeared and two incorrect symbols for the other to options.  She cheered when this happened. (Learner 1)

Reinforcement may arguably be absolute achievement and thereby, lead to feelings of satisfaction. The following communications highlight the importance of reinforcement practice of learning matter, which in this study is  the target language:

“It was well presented and there was also a reinforcement activity.”

Also: 

“I think if I practised, I’d remember the words. “

What the above findings indicate is that learners should be provided with the mechanisms to obtain objectives.  However, the level of difficulty should be such that achievement of objectives provides some challenge to the learner. Learners should also be provided with mechanisms to aid the reinforcement of target learning. Such mechanisms may provide the learner with an augmented sense of control in relation to learning outcome.  A review of Keller’s (1983) ARCS model and Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) theory on ‘flow’ might be applicable in this respect.

5.3.9. Conclusion – Sense of Control

From my analysis of the dataset, I recognize that the learner needs to possess a sense of control as she or he interacts within an e-learning environment. Learners need to understand what the objectives are and how to go about achieving them. The ability to control events and learning outcome leads to feelings of satisfaction. 

Brown et al (1983) referred to in Smith & Mosier (1986) stresses the significant role design has in controlling the way computer users interact with a system.   To approve of a computer system, the end user needs to feel in command of the sequence of interactivity. A lack of a sense of control can lead to a series of negative attitudes and emotions which ultimately may lead to reduced output and users might even refrain from further contact with the system (Brown et al., 1983, reported in Smith & Mosier, 1986)

Keller’s (1983) ARCS model embodies a sense of control under the confidence component.  One of the elements that impacts on a learner’s confidence levels is locus of control.  According to Keller’s (1983) model, learners need to feel they have some level of control in relation to their learning and results.  Learners need to believe that achievement is an express outcome of the quantity of effort they have applied.  Locus of control is also inherent in the experience of ‘flow’ (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)

However, Rodin & Timko, (1991) claims that perceptions of personal control over one’s life may actually have negative stress related impacts as opposed to favourable affects.  The extent of control needed may differ among individuals. In this regard, the negative stress related effects are greater for the elderly (Rodin & Timko, 1991).  It might be deduced from the above, when designing e-learning environments for elderly learners, the amount of control conceded to the learner should be balanced in order to provide a sense of autonomy to the learner, while at the same time minimising unnecessary stress.

5.4 Reminiscence: an overarching theme  

5.4.1. Introduction

This theme encompasses various aspects of reminiscence.  Analysis of the learners’ responses and oral reports indicate the relevance of reminiscence.   “All of us from time to time look back over our lives, recalling people and events, thoughts and feelings.  Sometimes such recall comes unbidden, as idle thoughts or day dreams.  Sometimes we purposely think back, trying to remember and reconstruct. Such retrospection, both purposive and spontaneous, may be called reminiscence.” (Havighurst & Glasser 1972 p.245).    Reminiscing may involve a review of one’s life and a recall of life events (Butler, 1963; Bluck & Levine 1998; Coleman 1986; Webster, 2001; Haber, 2006; Bornat, 1994). And life events are the blocks upon which narratives of one’s life are constructed (Bluck & Habermas, 2001).  Although all age groups reminisce, it has particular significance for an elderly person.  Older citizens recollect the things they have done or accomplished in life and endeavour to appease past disappointments and conflicts (Erikson, 1959; 1982).  Reminiscing can also augment mood.  A study by McMahon & Rhudick (1964) revealed that elderly men who reminisce appear less depressed than those who do not reminisce. 

In Hassenzahl’s (2003) model of user experience, a product or artefact’s capability to induce the memories of users of that artefact is deemed to be an important hedonic quality.  The artefact may, for example, characterize past occasions, relationships or feelings that mean something to the person (see Hassenzahl, 2003). “A product’s novelty and the challenges it provides, for example, contribute to its hedonic quality” (Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006 p.93). Furthermore, an artifact is capable of eliciting emotional responses.  It may be fashioned to educe delight, joyfulness, and memories or, perhaps, to satisfy simple needs or objectives (Okada, 2005; Hassenzahl, 2006; Hassenzahl, 2007). A study found that elderly people showed positive improvements in emotional experiences during periods of reminiscing and these improvements were not identified during any other daily activity (Pasupathi & Carstensen, 2003).  If an artifact is capable of evoking emotional responses (see Hassenzal. 2003; 2007), then it can be deduced that a product can activate episodes of reminiscence.  Examination of the data gathered throughout the present study indicates that a multisensory approach to the design of the learning activities has the capacity to trigger memories. The following assertion by a learner is indicative of this capacity:

“I think I probably enjoyed that the best.  I thought that was good.  And you were able to listen to the words and see text as well as images of the words - which was good.  I thought it was fun and a good way to learn Italian words. And it REMINDS ME of a time I was in Italy and had trouble ordering dinner” (Learner 1)

The above response is testimony of the potential an e-learning environment has to transport other elderly learners back in time.  This potential could be exploited by designers for the purposes of designing e-learning environments which harness the elderly learner’s need to reminisce.

5.4.2. Reminiscence Sub-themes

Under this theme, five sub-themes or factors were also identified as follows:

1. Sense of the Past
2. Memory
3. Them and Us (Generation Identity)
4. Sense of the Present
5. Sense of the Future

(see Figure 5.4.1)

Figure 5.4.1 REMINISCENCE  

5.4.3. Sense of the Past

The following response illustrates how an elderly learner looks back to the past with reference to his youth and how things were in relation to technology in those days.  He goes on to connect the past back to the present, returns to the past and then back to the present once more and implies the future.

“When I was growing up computers weren’t around. People used typewriters, faxes and telex machines.  And if you wanted to learn something, you had to read a book or go to classes” ... “I think younger people don’t read as much now, because they spend so much time on the computers.  When I was a lad, I used to read a lot.  I still read but not as much now, so I liked the text about the two Italians.  I think if I was fluent in Italian, I’d enjoy reading Italian books” (Learner 1)

These memories can help an elderly learner become more engaged in the learning activities.  The following affirmation indicates this potential:

“I was ... able to understand the activity and I learned some Italian words.  Also I love Italian food.” (Learner 1)

The way a subject matter, or in this study, target language is presented has the capacity to facilitate recollections and ignite episodes of reminiscence.  The alphabet activity was designed in the shape of a keyboard.  While interacting within the alphabet activity, a learner recognised:

 “I think the way this [presentation of alphabet] is set out [looks] well “[…] concise and bigger letters”  “the way it’s set out is like a keyboard and everyone knows the keyboard”  “although it’s not like the qwerty keyboard …..It’s better to the eye” (Learner 2)

This learner’s comments have indicative significance for the activity of reminiscence. Target language or topic can be presented in a way that will draw on the elderly learner’s ability to make associations and connections.  In this way, the design of the interface, images and how the text is presented can all be exploited by designers of e-learning environments for the purposes of encouraging a fusion of the present and the past in the minds of the learners.

5.4.4. Memory

The development of the self is interwoven with an individual’s memories of the self. Interpretation of past events and the role the individual played in those events is integrated into the individual’s life story. An individual’s level of consciousness of self is influenced by how she or he interprets the story of their life and the way she or he depicts or narrates those interpretations to others. The decisions and choices a person makes is influenced by his or her autobiographic narrative (Birren & Schroots, 2006).  Although it might be argued that reminiscence relies on memory, it may also be argued that the value of reminiscence is not the accuracy with which memories recollected depict past realities, but instead it is the value of its function in assisting the elderly person to assess the successfulness of their life.  “Reminiscence is one aspect of memory, but it is not identical to memory.” (Havighurst & Glasser,1972  p.245).  Studies highlight that memory is impacted by age.  Shortfalls in memory due to ageing are more prominent when the elderly are presented with new information in an unknown cognitive realm (Welford, 1980). The elderly person can find it difficult to retrieve words and facts. For example, she or he may have difficulty recalling people’s names or perhaps, the names of familiar objects (Reid Lyon & Knasegor, 1995).  Shortfalls in memory are a recurrent theme identified in the responses of the elderly learners:

“I always forget to scroll down “,  “I can’t remember exactly, but I felt better doing them this time.”,  “I can’t really remember exactly, but I felt things went pretty smoothly this time.” , “Not that I can remember anyway.”, “I can’t really say exactly what the differences are.”, “I can’t really remember really.”, “I can’t remember which one, I can’t really remember – nothing springs to mind now.” and “I can’t think of anything at the moment”.

Interestingly, the context wherein a learner gains new knowledge acts as a cue to retrieval of that knowledge at a subsequent time.  Retrieving knowledge in the same context wherein the knowledge was first acquired appears to be more effective. This can be exemplified by a study carried out by Godden & Baddeley, (1975) referred to in O’Grady, (2001), which reveals that divers who learned vocabulary both underwater and on the beach acquired the vocabulary just as effectively in both places, but retrieval was illustrated to be more effective in the place were the words had been initially acquired. In addition, Bower, (1981) referred to in O’Grady, (2001) highlights that an emotional state may also be considered a context.  In consideration of Bower’s (1981) claims that emotional states are contexts and Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) claims on word retrieval, this would imply that when a learner is in a state of reminiscence, the time, place and emotion to which she or he has been transported can heighten recall of vocabulary that was used by the learner in a past context.  Designers of e-learning environments could investigate whether this appears to be the case and if it does, then they could devise ways to exploit the contextual aspects of episodes of reminiscence to augment learning outcome in the present.

Furthermore, information accumulated over a person’s lifetime is generally retained (see McArdle et al., 2002; Park et al., 2003; Schaie, 2002; Birren & Schaie, 2006) especially when it has be drawn on repeatedly over time. Skills that are exercised repeatedly remain unharmed by age (Schaie, 1996). The concept of repetition and remembering is something that surfaced in the responses of all of the learners. The learner who tested in the first test and, in due course, retested in the final test could not quite identify what changes had been made to the activities from the first test to the final test.  When asked how she felt while doing the activities in the final test she replied: 

“I felt good.  I would say better than the other time I did them.  I can’t remember exactly, but I think I felt better doing them this time.”  (Final Test)

And:

“I knew something was different, but I can’t remember exactly how it was the first time.  It felt familiar alright, but I felt some things had changed.” (Final Test)

In relation to remembering things we have drawn on repeatedly over time, one learner asserted when asked had he learned anything:

“Ah, I learned ‘donna’ means woman.  I can’t really remember, I think I’d have to do the activities again.  A few times I’d say to remember.” (Learner 4)

Another learner indicated her pleasure at familiar items being included in the learning objectives:

“The alphabet activity was good too”... “We’re all familiar with the alphabet and I guess it’s a fundamental part of any language.” (Final Test)

In this study, when the elderly learners referred to the past, the interpretation of these references was drawn from the elderly person’s account of the past and not to the accuracy of recall.  This was considered of more relevance to both the elderly learner and to the research than was the accuracy of recall.

5.4.4. Them and Us (Generation Identity)

Within the dimensions of reminiscence, the elderly learners tended to make comparisons with present-day youth.  This sub-theme incorporates the generation identity factor. The elderly learners seemed to consider themselves as members of a homogeneous generation group in terms of their relationships with computers. This is illustrated by the following assertion wherein the learner shifts from his usage of the subject pronoun ‘I’ to the subject pronoun ‘we’ and he goes on to use the object pronoun ‘us’ as opposed to ‘me’.

“Most young people are very familiar with computers and it’s like reading and writing to them – they seem to know how to do things with the computer.  I suppose, if we had been brought up using computers it would be the same for us.” (Learner 1)

Age identity awareness is also indicated by the usage of the adjective young as in “young people” and as an adjectival noun as in “the young” and possessive adjective “my” in the phrase “people my age”. 

“ I guess in general most people my age use the computer a lot less  than I personally would - and probably too, most young people would use it more, so this would more than likely  mean that we have less experience with computers than the young.” (Learner 4)

The significance of this analysis may appear to be a matter of semantics. However, when these words are examined in the wider context of identity, they may have a deeper significance for the design of e-learning environments for elderly learners, especially in relation to environments that aim to stimulate the activity of reminiscence. The semantic approach to thematic analysis involves identifying themes from the ‘face value’ of the data and thereby, it is explicitly connected to the surface of content. Thematic analysis at a latent level extends further than the actual semantic content of the data and identifies or studies causal relationships and their meanings, suppositions and abstractions (see Braun & Clarke, 2006; Boyatis, 1998).  Therefore, in this case, the use of the specific possessive adjectives, adjectival nouns, subject pronouns and object pronouns may be indicative of the deep rooted social structures which exist in society and the elderly person’s acceptance of’ ‘their place’ within society.  Considerations at such a depth might be important for instructional and computer interface designers when aiming to design e-learning environments to engage elderly learners. However, caution must be taken when interpreting an elderly person’s use of pronouns. Impairments in speech due to age were observed; for example, via empty pauses and switching pronouns erroneously while in conversation (Obler, 1980; Ulatowska, et al, 1985).  In the present study, the learners’ use of language was evaluated for intended meaning within the context in which it was spoken and then related to the wider context of generation identity.  In this way, it is hoped that a true depiction of its significance is presented.  The following communication further highlights the concept of generation identity:

“... they’re more familiar with computers, so I think they’d find it easier.   I mean they grew up with computers.  I didn’t start using a computer until I was over fifty.” (Learner 3)

Generation identity comes about when a person is aware that they a member of a specific social subgroup or a cultural age group (Holmes & Conway, 1999). The reminiscence bump comes about between the ages of ten and thirty (Birren & Schroots, 2006; Rathbone et al., 2008). This is a time when an individual generates the greatest amount of memories during free recall tasks (Rathbone et al., 2008). Studies indicate that memories are effortlessly available from the reminiscence bump because they are linked to self-identity (Conway et al. 2005).  A person’s generation identity is also taken-up during this period.  Generation identity influences the reminiscence bump due to the concept that those who belong to the same subgroup will probably have similar genre of memories and experiences (Holmes et al., 1999).  People over the age of sixty tend to create attachment to their own age cohort (Havighurst, 1953; Havighurst & Glasser, 1972). Schmitt (1999) and Jordan (1999) argue that a product has the potential to evoke sensory pleasure and encourage identity attachments, associations, memories, and/or enjoyment. Thus, knowledge of the reminiscence bump could be exploited by designers aiming to engage the elderly learner and, in so doing, create e-learning environments to evoke past memories from the ‘bump’ years of a current population of elderly learners. 

5.4.5. Sense of the Present

The elderly learners’ sense of the present was both explicitly referred to and implicitly understood in their communications.  The learner’s emotional responses, such as enjoyment, pride in achievement, frustration, confusion and insecurities were observed as they interacted with the learning activities.  They also demonstrated a sense of the present through their curiosity and opinions on how elements of the design might be improved.   In relation to reminiscence, the elderly person must start from their present state and return to the present state.  Thus, it may be deduced that it is via the present that designers must ignite, within e-learning environments, episodes of reminiscence. The following communication by a learner encapsulates the relationship between the present and the past.  Moreover, it indicates the capacity stimuli in the ‘here and now’ have to transport an elderly person back in time.

“And it REMINDS ME of a time I was in Italy and had trouble ordering dinner.  It’s [it is] good to know about Italian food.”(Learner 1)

Let me break down the sentence: “it” equals the stimulus – in this case the vocabulary pertaining to Italian food, “reminds me” speaks of the present time.  “I was in Italy and had trouble ordering dinner” speaks of an experience which occurred in the past.   The learner then returns to the present: It’s [it is] good to know about Italian food - and this last comment also implies the future.Although this communication presents just a momentary occurrence of reminiscing, it points to the potential e-learning environments have to ignite longer episodes of reminiscing.

5.4.6. Sense of the Future

The elderly are more inclined to have less favourable perceptions toward their future than do their younger cohorts (Birren & Schroots, 2006). Furthermore, a study found that higher levels of worry in both elderly and young participants was connected to an external locus of control (Powers, Wisocki and Whitbourne, 1992). However, Davey & Wells (2006) inform that the elderly do not worry as much as younger adults and their worry moves from that connected to social and work concerns towards concerns about future coping abilities and health in the latter years of their lives (Davey & Wells, 2006).  The older adult’s social commitment appears to be more set in the memories of the past as opposed to the future and reminiscing can provide great support and comfort to the elderly person in the later years of their lives (see Erikson, 1959; 1982).  In relation to e-learning environments and the future, responses during interviews indicate that e-learning environments might be seen by the elderly person as rooted in the social and work context of a younger person’s future:

“I suppose computers are part of the future really” (Learner 1)

Further:

 “young ones need to know computers for their jobs, so I suppose they feel it’s more important to design for the younger generations.  That’s the way things are in general I suppose.  I’m retired now, so it’s not as important for me.” (Learner 1)

And the same learner pointed to her doubts about future travel abroad :

 “I like when the activity is interesting and I’d love to go back to Italy, I doubt I ever will ....“  (Learner 1)

 Another declared:

 “I’m an old man now - and in my day, computers didn’t exist, only typewriters.  I never really used a computer before a couple of years ago, so I’m not that used to them, I’ll probably never really get used to them.” (Learner 2)

The above expressions provide an insight into the elderly learners’ perceptions of the future in regard to computer based learning. Inclusive design mechanisms need to consider these perceptions and endeavour to provide more inclusive e-learning environments for the elderly learner.

5.4.7. Conclusion - Reminiscence

One of the major themes to derive from the dataset is reminiscence (see Havighurst 1972). Expressions of yesteryears and reticent visualisations of the future provide fundamental insights into the instinctive side of the elderly learner.   Content that has the potential to induce the activity of reminiscence could improve the engagement levels elderly e-learners.  An exploration of Erikson’s (1959; 1982) and Erikson & Erikson (1987) psychosocial theory might be applicable here.  This theory proposes that the elderly individual looks back on his or her life to resolve whether is was a success.  On the one hand, the individual develops feelings of satisfaction and integrity if she or he perceives that his or her life has been successful. On the other hand, she or he develops a sense of despair if she or he perceives his or her life in a negative light (Erikson, 1982; Erikson & Erikson, 1987). Therefore, on the premise of Erikson’s psychosocial theory and the identified theme of reminiscence in this study, it might be deduced that providing the elderly person with engaging learning activities would contribute to feelings of satisfaction and integrity (see Erikson 1959; 1982; Erikson & Erikson, 1987). E-Learning environments that aim to engage an elderly learner could harness the learner’s natural tendency to reminisce.  The multisensory approach employed in the design of the activities tested in this study showed embryonic signs of its effectiveness in providing a learning domain to ignite past memories.  Although the scope of this study was restricted in the extent to which the design of activities could be modified, the participatory iterative design process employed throughout the study indicated its capacity to influence the engagement levels of the elderly learners. Images, interactivity and instructional content was fined tuned to the requirements of the elderly learners and analysis of data drawn from first test sessions and the final test sessions indicate an improvement in learner engagement levels.   The capacity of such a process to influence the emotional state of elderly learners is indicative of its potential to discover ways in which to ignite episodes of reminisce.  Therefore this capacity might be exploited by designers for the purposes of designing e-learning environments which harness elderly learners’ needs to reminisce and consider the factors identified under the theme of reminiscence. 

5.5. Chapter Summary

This thematic report presents and provides discussion on the findings from my analysis of the dataset in reference to the research question.  Examples of data extracts are provided and an exploration of relevant literature provides an insight into theories and previous studies that relate to the empirical findings.  In sum, this chapter presents the three overarching themes identified which are: capacity, sense of control and reminiscence.  The chapter also presents and discusses the factors identified in the context of these themes which I perceive, as researcher, need to be considered when designing e-learning environments to engage elderly learners. The following chapter presents a summary of the conclusions in relation to each of the individual factors identified.

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